| About Bhutan - Political System |
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Legislature
The unicameral National Assembly--the Tshogdu--comprises the legislative branch of government. The National Assembly has the power to enact civil, criminal, and property laws; to appoint and remove ministers; to debate policy issues as a means of providing input to government decision making; and to control the auditor general, who has approval authority over government expenditures.
Since its establishment in 1953, the National Assembly has varied in size from 140 to 200 members. According to Rule 7 of the Constitution of the National Assembly, the legislature sets its size every five years. The National Assembly has three categories of members: representatives of the people elected by indirect vote every three years and comprising between half and two-thirds of the National Assembly membership; monastic representatives, also appointed for three-year terms and constituting about one-third of the membership; and government officials nominated by the Druk Gyalpo. The first woman member of the National Assembly was seated in 1979.
In 1989 there were 150 members in the National Assembly, 100 of whom were representatives of the general public. Under 1981 rules, qualified citizens over twenty-five years of age can be nominated at general public meetings by village heads and adult representatives of each household (gung) and "joint family." Once nominations are certified by village heads and local government officials, they are forwarded to the speaker of the National Assembly for "final declaration of the nominee as a member of the National Assembly." The other fifty members are made up of monastic representatives nominated by the Central Monastic Body in Thimphu (or Punakha in the winter) and eight district monastic bodies, members of the Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsong), members of the Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), secretaries of various government departments, district heads, others nominated by the government, and a representative nominated by the Bhutan Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The National Assembly meets at least once and sometimes twice a year--in May and June and again in October and November; each session lasts about four weeks. Emergency sessions can also be called by the Druk Gyalpo.
The National Assembly elects a speaker from among its members and is authorized to enact laws, advise the government on constitutional and political matters, and hold debates on important issues. Executive-branch organizations are responsible to the National Assembly. Powers of the National Assembly include directly questioning government officials and forcing ministers to resign if there is a two-thirds no-confidence vote.
Executive
At the apex of the executive branch is the Druk Gyalpo, who is both head of state and head of the government. Responsible to him are two advisory and executive organizations: the Royal Advisory Council and the Council of Ministers. There also is the Royal Secretariat, which serves as an intermediary between the Druk Gyalpo and the Council of Ministers.
The Royal Advisory Council was mentioned in the 1953 constitution of the National Assembly (members of the council are concurrently members of the National Assembly), but it took on greater importance in 1965 when the Druk Gyalpo installed representatives elected by the monastic bodies and the National Assembly. In 1989 the council's membership included a representative of the government, two representatives of the monasteries, six regional representatives, and a chairperson, all for five-year terms. The chairperson and the government representative are appointed by the Druk Gyalpo; the two monks represent the central and district monastic bodies. Monk representatives, according to 1979 regulations for council membership, are required to be literate and "highly knowledgeable about the Drukpa Kargyupa religion." Monk nominees are subject to the approval of the speaker of the National Assembly. The regional representatives are elected by the National Assembly from a list endorsed by village assemblies. Representing the southeastern, southwestern, western, eastern, central, and the Thimphu-Paro-Ha regions, they are required to be literate, knowledgeable about Bhutanese traditional culture and customs with "some knowledge of modern customs and etiquette," "well-behaved and able to speak well," "able to shoulder responsibility, and far-sighted." As the principal consulting body to the Druk Gyalpo, the Royal Advisory Council is a key state organization and interacts most directly with the National Assembly.
Chaired by the Druk Gyalpo, the Council of Ministers was established in 1968 with the approval of the National Assembly. In 1991 it comprised seven ministers and the Druk Gyalpo's representative in each ministry (agriculture; communications; finance; foreign affairs; home affairs; social services; and trade, industry, and tourism). The largest ministry by far was the Ministry of Social Services, which ran the nation's education and health systems and included nearly 26 percent of all civil service employees. Two of the ministers in 1990--the minister of finance (Ashi Sonam Chhoden Wangchuck) and the minister of home affairs (Dasho Namgyal Wangchuck)--were members of the royal family.
Until the 1960s, the Royal Secretariat played a major role in government affairs. The key officials of the Royal Secretariat were the Druk Gyalpo's representative in the Royal Bhutan Army, the royal chief secretary, and the royal finance secretary. After the establishment of the Council of Ministers and subsequent shift of administrative and financial matters out of the palace, however, the Royal Secretariat's day-to-day role diminished in importance. Relations between the two bodies have been described as cordial, nevertheless, and ministers usually were selected from among Royal Secretariat personnel.
Judiciary
The highest-level court is the Supreme Court of Appeal--the Druk Gyalpo himself. The Supreme Court of Appeal hears appeals of decisions emanating from the High Court (Thrimkhang Gongma). In 1989 the High Court, which was established in 1968 to review lowercourt appeals, had six justices (including a chief justice), two of whom were elected by the National Assembly and four of whom were appointed by the Druk Gyalpo, for five-year terms. Each district has a magistrate's court (Dzongkhag Thrimkhang), headed by a magistrate or thrimpon, from which appeals can be made to the High Court. Minor civil disputes are adjudicated by a village head. All citizens have been granted the right to make informal petitions to the Druk Gyalpo, some of which have been made reportedly by citizens who flagged down the Druk Gyalpo's automobile as he toured the nation.
Civil Service
Bhutan's government employees have been under the authority of the Royal Civil Service Commission since its establishment in 1982. Part of the commission's mandate was to reform government service. With assistance from the UNDP, the commission held a conference in 1986 and assessed the civil service. Plans were laid out for providing in-country and foreign training, improving training effectiveness, and organizing a system by which personnel and training management would be linked within departments. Civil service rules adopted in 1989 established procedures for government employment and prohibited civil servants from being assigned to their home districts. Starting in 1989, candidates for government service were given only one opportunity to pass the civil service selection examination. Once they were selected, promotions were available through seventeen grades, from the lowest clerk to just below the deputy minister level.
In an efficiency drive in the late 1980s, the civil service was reduced through reorganization (the government was scaled down from thirty-three entities at and above the department level in 1985 to nineteen in 1989), reassignment to local government, retirements, and "voluntary resignations." In 1987 there were 13,182 civil service workers, but by 1989 the number of regular civil service employees had dropped to 11,099. An additional 3,855 persons worked under government contract or as "wage" employees throughout all parts of the government. More than 1,650 of them, however, were employed by government-run industries, and another 848 worked for the Chhukha Hydel Project. The total number of persons working under the civil service in July 1989 was 15,802. Later in 1989, however, all public and joint sector corporation employees were removed from the civil service rolls. Because of the national shortage of skilled workers, 3,137 members of the civil service in 1989 were reportedly "nonnationals," mostly ethnic Nepalese.
Local Government
Local government in 1991 was organized into four zones, or dzongdey, and eighteen districts, or dzongkhag. Before the zonal administration system was established beginning in 1988 and 1989, the central government interacted directly with district governments. The new level of administration was established, according to official sources, to "bring administration closer to the people" and to "expedite projects without having to refer constantly to the ministry." In other words, the zonal setup was to provide a more efficient distribution of personnel and administrative and technical skills. The zonal boundaries were said to be dictated by geophysical and agroclimatic considerations. Zonal administrators responsible for coordinating central policies and plans acted as a liaisons between the central ministries and departments and district governments. Each zonal headquarters had nine divisions: administration, accounts, agriculture, animal husbandry, education, engineering, health, irrigation, and planning. The divisions were staffed with former civil service employees of the Ministry of Home Affairs and with technical personnel from the various sectors in the districts. Four zones were established in 1988 and 1989: Zone I, including four western districts, seated at Chhukha; Zone II, including four central districts, seated at Chirang; Zone III, including four central districts, seated at Gelephu; and Zone IV, including five eastern districts, seated at Yonphula. Although Thimphu District and Thimphu Municipality were within the boundaries of Zone I, they remained outside the zonal system. By 1991, however, only Zone IV was fully functioning.
A total of 20 district were headed by an appointed district officer, who was responsible for development planning and civil administration. Formerly appointed by the Druk Gyalpo, district officers have been appointed by the Royal Civil Service Commission since 1982. Each district also had a district development committee comprising elected representatives and government officials.
Districts were further subdivided into sub-districts (dungkhag) and village blocks or groups (gewog). Ten of the eighteen districts had sub-districts, which were further subdivided into village groups. The sub-district served as an intermediate level of administration between district government and some villages in larger districts. These same districts also had village groups that were immediately subordinate to the district government. In the remaining eight smaller districts, village groups were directly subordinate to the district government. In 1989 there were 191 village groups, 67 of which were organized into 18 sub-districts and 124 of which were immediately subordinate to the district government. Sub-district officers (dungpa) led the sub-districts, and village heads (gup in the north, mandal in the south) were in charge of the village groups. Despite greater central government involvement with economic development programs since the 1960s, villages continued to have broad local autonomy. There were 4,500 villages and settlements in 1991.
Monarchy
Ugyen Wangchuck removed his chief rival, the Paro ponlop and others. By 1906, he took control of civil administration and finally, in 1907, the fifty-fourth and last druk desi was forced to retire, and despite recognitions of subsequent reincarnations of Ngawang Namgyal, the Shabdrung system came to an end. An assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families held in December agreed to end the moribund 300-year-old dual system and to establish a new absolute monarchy. Accordingly Ugyen Wangchuck was named its first hereditary Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King. The Dorji family became hereditary holders of the position of gongzim (chief chamberlain), the top government post. The British approved of the entire development.
A new treaty was signed with the new government at Punakha on January 8, 1910. It amended two articles of the 1865 treaty: the British agreed to double their annual subsidy to 100,000 rupees and "to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan." In turn, Bhutan agreed "to be guided by the advice of the British Government in regard to its external relations."
Toward the end of his life, Ugyen Wangchuck was concerned about the continuity of the family dynasty, and in 1924 he sought British assurance that the Wangchuck family would continue to rule in Bhutan. His request was responded with guarantee. His son Jigme Wangchuck succeeded him in 1926.
The issue of Bhutan's status vis-à-vis the government of India (was Bhutan a state of India or did it enjoy internal sovereignty?) was reexamined by London in 1932 as part of the issue of the status of India itself. It was decided to leave the decision to join an Indian federation up to Bhutan when the time came. When British rule over India ended in 1947, India succeeded Britain as the de facto protector of the Himalayan kingdom One year later through a formal agreement India recognized Bhutan's independence
The third king Jigme Dorji Wangchuck was enthroned in 1952. He was married to European-educated cousin of the Chogyal (king) of Sikkim. He established the National Assembly in 1953 after pressures from south for political and ethnic freedom. But he retained the right to drop the decision by the assembly.
He closed borders with China after the northern neighbor occupied Tibet in 1951. After that Bhutan’s authority become more humble to Indian government. In return, India agreed to fund in most of its development activities.
The five years development plans began in 1961 greatly improved the economic status of the country.
The position of gongzim, held since 1907 by the Dorji family, was upgraded in 1958 to lonchen (prime minister) and was still in the hands of the Dorjis.
Modernization efforts moved forward in the 1960s under the direction of the lonchen, Jigme Palden Dorji, the Druk Gyalpo's brother-in-law. In 1962, however, Dorji incurred disfavor with the Royal Bhutan Army over the use of military vehicles and the forced retirement of some fifty officers. In April 1964, while the Druk Gyalpo was in Switzerland for medical care, Dorji was assassinated in Phuentsholing by an army corporal. The majority of accused of the crime were military personnel and included the army chief of operations, Namgyal Bahadur, the Druk Gyalpo's uncle, who was executed.
Dorji was succeeded by his brother Lhendup Dorji, and for a time under the Druk Gyalpo's brother, Namgyal Wangchuck, as head of the army. Power struggle ensued between pro-Wangchuck loyalists and modernist Dorji supporters. The main issue was not an end to or lessening of the power of the monarchy but full freedom from Indian interference. Few historians also said that the 1964 crisis was competition for influence on the palace between the Dorji family and the Druk Gyalpo's Tibetan mistress, Yangki. Consequently Lhendup Dorji and other supporters of Yanki were exiled in 1965. The tense political situation continued, however, with an assassination attempt on the Druk Gyalpo himself in July 1965.
In 1966 Jigme Dorji Wangchuck chose Thimphu as the permanent capital. In May 1968, the Rules and Regulations of the National Assembly were revised granting more powers to it. The king handed over the sovereign power, including the power to remove government ministers and the king himself to the National Assembly. Following November, he renounced his veto power over National Assembly and said he would step down if two-thirds members of the assembly passed a no-confidence vote against him and the first such vote was held in 1969. The system, however, was abolished by his successor, the present king Jigme SIngye Wangchuck.
King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck tried to build more direct links with the international community under the foreign-policy guidance of India. Consequently, Bhutan joined the Colombo Plan in 1962 and notified India of its desire to join the UN in 1966. In 1970, Bhutan attended the UN session as observer and in 1971 received membership.
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
By the 1980s, the government had become acutely conscious not just of widespread immigration of Nepali in southern Bhutan, but also of the total lack of integration even of long term immigrants into the political and cultural mainstream of the country. For its part, government officials had long ignored their presence. The Government promulgated directives in the 1980s that sought to preserve Bhutan's cultural identity as well as to formally embrace the citizens of other ethnic groups in a "one nation, one people" policy. While the intent of the policy was benign and constructive, the government implied that the 'culture' to be preserved would be that of the northern Bhutanese. This policy therefore required citizens to wear the attire of the northern Bhutanese in public places and reinforced the status of Dzongkha as the national language. Nepali was discontinued as a subject in the schools keeping in line with the status of the other languages of Bhutan. The Nepalis claim that the Bhutanese authorities are clinging to power at the expense of human rights, pluralism, and democratic principles.
Simmering tensions were heightened in the late 1980s, when the government conducted a census exercise to control the flood of illegal immigration. The basis for the census findings was the 1958 'cut off' year, the year that the Nepali population had first received Bhutanese citizenship. Those individuals who could not provide proof of residency prior to 1958 were adjudged to be illegal immigrants. This was implemented through the 1985 Citizenship Act.
Matters reached a head in 1990 after well organized groups comprised of 10,000 or more ethnic Nepalis organized protest marches in different districts in southern Bhutan. Some of the organizers of the marches were arrested and detained.
Several thousand left and settled in refugee camps with the support received from UNHCR. The number of people in the camps ballooned in a year to about 100,000. The issue remains unresolved today, with Bhutan unable to repatriate refugees. The refugees offer ownership of the national citizen identity cards as 'proof' of citizenry. The government contends that there has been widespread forging of these documents.
The crisis of the people in the camps causes some tension between Bhutan and Nepal. 15 round of bilateral talks have been held but in perspective to solution. UNHCR has presented its plan for third country settlement but the host government.
In 1998, King Jigme introduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his powers to the Prime Minister and allowing for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly.
A new constitution has been drafted. It will be put up for ratification by a referendum before coming into force. In December 2005, King Jigme announced that he would step down as King of Bhutan in 2008, succeeded by his son, the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Bhutanese in exiles have criticized the constitution saying that the king is trying to overshadow the refugee problem by introducing guided democracy.
Creation of tension
Jigme Dorji Wangchuck was succeeded by Jigme Singye Wangchuck. The close ties of the Wangchuck and Dorji families were reemphasized after this, whose mother, Ashi Kesang Dorji was the sister of the lonchen, Jigme Palden Dorji. His formal coronation took place in June 1974 after the strains between the Wangchucks and Dorjis ended. The reconciliation, however, was preceded by reports of a plot to assassinate the new king before his coronation could take place and to set fire to the Tashichhodzong. Yangki, the illegitimate wife of his father and have four children by him, was the alleged force behind the plot, which was uncovered three months before the coronation. Thirty persons were arrested, including high government and police officials.
Royal families Bhutan and Nepal attempted to build matrimonial relations in mid 1985. As part of that, the then prince (present king of Nepal) Gyanendra visited Bhutan in 1985. Bhutan on its part agreed to denounce the eating of cow meat (cow is the national animal of Nepal) and adopt Dahura-Suruwal as the state dress code. Unfortunately, the consequent visit of then Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi put an end to this plan. Gandhi visited Bhutan in 1986 and held three hours of talks with the Bhutanese in Kuje. Kuje in Bumthang is regarded as the meditation place of Guru Rinpoche and no one other than king is allowed to enter the Lhakhang.
The Bhutanese king married four daughters of a highly placed Lama in November 1988 in a single ceremony and on spot announced eight royal children born before the marriage. Crown Prince was also announced in the same function.
Then, suppression in southern Bhutan began. The National Assembly in 1985 in the direction of the king adopted amended Citizenship Act 1958 and started categorizing the southern Bhutanese. The census begun in 1987 stopped halfway through the execution. Corruption cases had increased. King formed a one member investigation team of then royal advisor Tek Nath Rizal. The team submitted its report to take action against the then Thimphu administrator Dago Tshering, who was younger brother of former Home Minister Dago Tshering.
Following this, Rizal became the target of other high government officials. They found the chance when Rizal submitted an appeal to King to look into the growing army atrocities in southern Bhutan. The king and the allies of Dago accused him of treason. He was arrested and disposed of his position. After 21 days Rizal was set free on condition that he would leave the country within three days and do not talk to more then three people at a time.
With insecurity, Rizal fled to Nepal and began campaigning against the Bhutan government. But he was extradited to Thimphu on November 16 by the Panchayat government of Nepal along with Jogen Gazemere and Shushil Pokhrel.
With the arrest of Rizal, Bhutan People’s Party organised mass rallies in southern Bhutan demanding release of Rizal and other political prisoners. Following the demonstrations, government imposed military rule and disbursed army in southern Bhutan. Hundreds of villagers were arrested from field and dozens of young girls were raped. Those trying to escape the security personnel were shot dead and many burnt inside the locked houses. Dozens of other lost their lives in jails and status of many still remains unknown.
With crackdown in southern Bhutan, the government began to pressurize the villagers to sign voluntary migration form and leave country with little compensation. Over hundreds of thousand southern Bhutanese fled to Nepal in search of safe living environment. |
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